The Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt: Who They Were, When They Ruled and Where to See Their Monuments

For almost 3,000 years, Egypt was ruled by kings known today as pharaohs. They built the pyramids of Giza, the temples of Karnak and Luxor, the rock-cut tombs of the Valley of the Kings and the colossal facade of Abu Simbel. This guide takes you through the main periods of pharaonic history, names the rulers who matter most for a visitor, and shows where to see what each of them left behind.

Dates in Egyptian history are approximate, especially before about 700 BC, and scholars place some reigns a few years apart. Every date below is a commonly used range, not a fixed point. For a table of eras matched to sites, see our ancient Egypt timeline for travelers.

What was a pharaoh?

The English word "pharaoh" comes, through Greek and Hebrew, from the Egyptian per aa, "great house". At first it named the royal palace, and only from the New Kingdom (after about 1550 BC) did it become a way of referring to the king himself. Earlier Egyptians used other titles, including nesu-bity, often translated "he of the sedge and the bee", for the ruler of Upper and Lower Egypt.

The pharaoh was far more than a political leader. He was the link between gods and people, the guarantor of maat (order, truth, and balance), the commander of the army, the chief priest of every temple, and the owner of the land in theory. In practice priests, viziers, scribes, and generals ran daily affairs, but every temple relief shows the king making the offerings, because it was his role to keep the gods content and the universe in order.

Royal power was passed mostly from father to son, though succession could be disputed, and women occasionally ruled as regents or kings. The historian Manetho, writing under the Ptolemies, grouped the kings into 30 dynasties, a system modern Egyptologists still use as a framework.

Early Dynastic Period (c. 3100-2686 BC)

The first two dynasties saw Upper and Lower Egypt join under a single crown, with a capital at Memphis near modern Cairo.

Narmer is the king most often named as the unifier. The Narmer Palette, a carved slab showing him wearing both the white crown of Upper Egypt and the red crown of Lower Egypt, is one of the oldest historical documents in the world and is held in Cairo. Tradition calls the first king Menes; most scholars treat Menes and Narmer as the same person or as a close pair of early rulers.

The kings of this period were buried at Abydos in Upper Egypt, in tombs that still form part of the sacred landscape, and nobles built mud-brick mastabas at Saqqara. There are few visible monuments, so this era is best met in museum collections and at Abydos for travelers with extra days.

The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2181 BC)

The Old Kingdom is the age of the pyramids, and the first thing to know is that the idea developed quickly in a few generations.

Djoser (Dynasty 3, reigned about 2670 BC) commissioned the Step Pyramid at Saqqara, designed by his official Imhotep. It stacked six mastaba-like layers into one of the first large stone monuments in the world. Today you can walk through the surrounding courtyard and see the pyramid at close range in the Saqqara guide.

Sneferu (Dynasty 4, about 2600 BC) built or finished three pyramids and tried to solve the problem of the smooth-sided shape. At Meidum a collapse showed the limits of the first attempt; at Dahshur his Bent Pyramid changes angle partway up, and the Red Pyramid beside it is generally regarded as the first successful true pyramid. Both are open to visitors, and Dahshur is far quieter than Giza. Read more about the Bent Pyramid and the Red Pyramid.

Khufu, Sneferu's son, built the Great Pyramid of Giza around 2560 BC. It was originally about 146 meters high and stayed the tallest human-made structure on Earth for thousands of years. The only known portrait of Khufu is a statuette just a few centimeters tall, kept in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.

Khafre, his son or successor, built the second pyramid, which looks taller because it stands on higher ground, and is traditionally credited with the Great Sphinx. Menkaure built the third and smallest of the three major pyramids, with a notably different granite casing at the base. For practical advice on visiting all three, see the Pyramids of Giza visitor guide and the Great Sphinx page.

The Old Kingdom's later dynasties built smaller pyramids, such as those at Abusir, and sun temples. Pepy II (Dynasty 6) is traditionally credited with one of the longest reigns in history, often given as more than 60 years and sometimes much longer. His rule coincided with weakening royal authority, and the central state fragmented soon afterwards into the First Intermediate Period (c. 2181-2055 BC).

The Middle Kingdom (c. 2055-1650 BC)

Reunification came from Thebes (modern Luxor). Mentuhotep II (Dynasty 11) defeated his rivals around 2055 BC and reunited the country. His terraced mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahari still stands next to the better-known temple of Hatshepsut, which later builders partly modeled on it.

The following Dynasty 12 is regarded by many scholars as a classic age of Egyptian literature, jewelry and statuary. Senusret III strengthened royal control, led campaigns into Nubia and built a chain of fortresses along the Nile; his sculpted portraits, with their lined, serious faces, are memorable royal images from antiquity. Amenemhat III presided over a prosperous period, developed the Fayoum oasis, and built pyramids at Dahshur and Hawara.

The dynasty ended with Sobekneferu, one of the first women to rule Egypt as king, who reigned for only a few years around 1800 BC. After the Middle Kingdom, central power weakened again, and a group from the Levant known as the Hyksos controlled parts of the north during the Second Intermediate Period.

The New Kingdom (c. 1550-1069 BC)

The New Kingdom, Dynasties 18 to 20, is the era of Egypt's empire and the source of most of the monuments in Luxor and Aswan.

Ahmose I expelled the Hyksos around 1550 BC and founded Dynasty 18, reuniting the country and restarting large-scale building.

Hatshepsut came to the throne as regent for the young Thutmose III and then took the full royal titles herself, ruling for about two decades from around 1479 BC. Her reign was known for trade, particularly an expedition to the land of Punt, and for building. Her terraced temple at Deir el-Bahari on Luxor's West Bank is a striking monument in Egypt, and you can read about it in the Hatshepsut temple guide.

Thutmose III was about two years old when he became king, which is why Hatshepsut served first as regent. After her death he ruled alone for around three decades and is remembered as a great military leader whose campaigns, including the battle at Megiddo, pushed Egypt's influence far into the Levant. His reign lasted about 54 years in total. At Karnak he built the Festival Hall known as the Akhmenu.

Amenhotep III (reigned about 1390-1353 BC) ruled at a peak of wealth and peace. He built much of Luxor Temple, a huge mortuary temple on the West Bank of which only the two Colossi of Memnon remain on site, and a large number of statues in museums worldwide.

Akhenaten, his son, broke with tradition. He promoted the worship of the sun disc Aten, moved the capital to a new city, Akhetaten (modern Amarna), and changed the style of royal art. His wife Nefertiti is a well-known woman of the ancient world. After his death his city was abandoned and the traditional gods returned.

Tutankhamun (about 1332-1323 BC) was a young king who ruled briefly during the restoration of the old religion. He is famous mainly because his tomb in the Valley of the Kings was found almost intact by Howard Carter in 1922. Its contents, including the gold mask, are displayed at the Grand Egyptian Museum.

Ramesses II (about 1279-1213 BC) ruled for roughly 66 years, fought the Hittites at Kadesh, and later signed one of the earliest known peace treaties. He built on a huge scale: additions to Karnak and Luxor, the Ramesseum on the West Bank, and the rock-cut temples of Abu Simbel in the south, where the whole temples were cut up and rebuilt on higher ground in the 1960s to save them from the rising waters of Lake Nasser.

Ramesses III (about 1186-1155 BC), the last great king of Dynasty 20, fought off invasions by the so-called Sea Peoples and built the well-preserved mortuary temple at Medinet Habu. After him a series of weaker rulers followed, all called Ramesses, and the empire declined until the New Kingdom ended around 1069 BC.

From the Third Intermediate Period to the Late Period (c. 1069-332 BC)

Egypt split for a time between kings in the north, based at Tanis in the Delta, and priests of Amun in Thebes. Around 750 BC a dynasty of Nubian kings from Kush, the 25th Dynasty, ruled the whole country; Piye and Taharqa are well known and restored many temples.

After an Assyrian invasion, Dynasty 26 revived Egypt from its capital at Sais in the Delta, and a period of cultural revival followed. Persia conquered Egypt in 525 BC, and after a brief independent interlude, Nectanebo II, who ruled until 343 BC, became the last native Egyptian pharaoh. Few major monuments survive from this era in the places most tourists go, though you will see its art in museums.

The Ptolemaic Period (305-30 BC)

Alexander the Great entered Egypt in 332 BC, was welcomed by many Egyptians, and was given pharaonic titles. He founded Alexandria in 331 BC and left soon afterward. After his death, his general Ptolemy I took control of Egypt and was crowned king in 305 BC, founding a Greek-speaking dynasty that ruled for nearly three centuries.

The Ptolemies built or expanded major temples in traditional style, which is why some of Egypt's best-preserved temples are Ptolemaic: Edfu, Dendera, Kom Ombo, and Philae. They are good places to understand how a temple worked, with complete walls, roofs, and reliefs. See our guides to the temple of Edfu and the temple of Philae.

Cleopatra VII, ruler from 51 BC, was the last active ruler of the dynasty. She was fluent in Egyptian as well as Greek, formed political alliances with first Julius Caesar and then Mark Antony, and died in 30 BC after their defeat by Octavian, who annexed Egypt for Rome. Her son with Caesar was Caesarion. The Roman emperors that followed, beginning with Augustus, were still portrayed as pharaohs on temple walls for a long time, so Roman-period carvings appear alongside Ptolemaic ones.

Where to see the pharaohs today

Beyond the sites themselves, the royal mummies of a number of New Kingdom rulers, including Ramesses II, are displayed at the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization in Cairo, and the older collections of the Egyptian Museum in Tahrir cover many periods. The pharaohs were also worshippers of the gods whose images fill every temple; our guide to the Egyptian gods you will see on temple walls helps you read the reliefs.

How to see the pharaohs on a trip

Egypt's pharaonic history is spread along the Nile, so the easiest way to see it in order is to follow the river from north to south.

• Cairo and Giza (2 to 3 days). Start with the Old Kingdom: the pyramids, the Sphinx, Saqqara, and Dahshur, plus the Grand Egyptian Museum. Our Giza travel guide, the Saqqara and Dahshur travel guide, and the Grand Egyptian Museum guide help you plan.
• Luxor (2 to 3 days). This is the heart of the New Kingdom: Karnak, Luxor Temple, the Valley of the Kings, Deir el-Bahari, and the Ramesseum. See the Luxor travel guide, the Karnak guide, the Luxor Temple guide, and how long to spend in the Valley of the Kings.
• Edfu, Kom Ombo, Philae, and Aswan. These are the late, well-preserved Ptolemaic temples, easy to combine on a Nile cruise.
• Abu Simbel. A dramatic temple of Ramesses II, reached from Aswan by road or flight. Read the Abu Simbel travel guide.

Short on time? Choose day tours to see the Giza pyramids, Luxor's temples, or Aswan's sights with a guide. For a full chronological route with transfers and a guide arranged for you, browse our Egypt tours, or tell us your dates and interests through plan your trip. A guide with Egyptology training makes a big difference at the pharaonic sites, because temple walls and tomb paintings are far easier to understand when someone reads them with you.

Frequently asked questions

Who are the most famous pharaohs of ancient Egypt?

Khufu (the Great Pyramid), Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Akhenaten, Tutankhamun, Ramesses II, and Cleopatra VII are the names most travelers meet. Each is tied to places you can visit, from Giza and Deir el-Bahari to the Valley of the Kings and Abu Simbel.

How old was Thutmose III when he became pharaoh?

About two years old, on paper. He inherited the throne as a small child, and his stepmother Hatshepsut acted as regent and then took the royal titles as co-ruler. Thutmose III ruled alone for about the last three decades of his reign, after her death.

What ended the pharaonic era?

The pharaonic system faded in stages. Persia, then Alexander the Great and the Ptolemies, ruled Egypt, and the last Ptolemaic ruler, Cleopatra VII, died in 30 BC when Egypt became a Roman province. Roman emperors were still shown as pharaohs on temple walls for some time afterwards.

Did Cleopatra marry Julius Caesar?

No. Cleopatra VII and Julius Caesar had a relationship and a son, Ptolemy XV, known as Caesarion, but there was no marriage. She later formed a partnership with Mark Antony, and their defeat at Actium in 31 BC led to the Roman takeover of Egypt.

Does Egypt still have pharaohs?

No. The title disappeared in antiquity. Egypt was later ruled by caliphs, sultans, and a royal family, and the monarchy was abolished in 1953. Today Egypt is a republic led by an elected president.

What does the word pharaoh mean?

It comes from the Egyptian per aa, meaning "great house", which first named the royal palace. From the New Kingdom onward the word came to be used for the king himself, and the Greek and biblical writers passed it on to later languages.

Who was the first pharaoh of Egypt?

Tradition names Menes as the king who united Upper and Lower Egypt around 3100 BC. Many scholars identify him with Narmer, shown on the Narmer Palette, while some think the name refers to his successor Hor-Aha. Narmer is the usual answer for the first pharaoh.

Were there female pharaohs?

Yes, a few. Sobekneferu (Middle Kingdom), Hatshepsut (New Kingdom), and Twosret (late New Kingdom) ruled as kings, and Cleopatra VII was the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Hatshepsut is well known and left a temple you can visit at Deir el-Bahari.

Plan it with Nourbelle

If you would like to see the pharaohs' monuments in a sensible order, with a guide who knows the sites, tell us your interests through plan your trip and a Nourbelle specialist will suggest a route.