Ancient Egypt Timeline for Travelers

Egyptian history runs about 5,000 years, but the sites on a typical trip belong to three main eras: the Old Kingdom (the pyramids of Giza, Saqqara, and Dahshur, c. 2686-2181 BC), the New Kingdom (Luxor's temples, the Valley of the Kings, and Abu Simbel, c. 1550-1069 BC) and the Ptolemaic and Roman periods (Edfu, Dendera, Kom Ombo, Philae, and Esna, 332 BC onward). Cairo's churches, mosques, and citadel add another 1,400 years on top.

Knowing which era a monument belongs to changes how you see it. A pyramid and a Luxor temple are separated by more than 1,000 years, roughly the same gap that separates us from the Vikings, and Cleopatra VII, under whom work on Dendera continued, lived closer in time to us than to the builders of the Great Pyramid. Dates before about 700 BC are approximate, and scholars still debate them, so treat every number below as a guide rather than a fixed point.

This page sets out the periods in order, matches each to the places you will actually visit, and ends with a simple way to keep it all straight while you travel.

The timeline at a glance

Before the pyramids: Predynastic and Early Dynastic

Before about 3100 BC, communities along the Nile developed farming, pottery, and early forms of kingship. Around 3100 BC, Upper and Lower Egypt were brought under a single ruler, an event traditionally linked to King Narmer. His ceremonial palette, carved with scenes of a king subduing enemies, is one of the treasures of the Egyptian Museum in Tahrir Square and a good object to look for if you want to start your trip at the beginning.

The first two dynasties buried their kings at Abydos, in Upper Egypt, while officials built rectangular mud-brick tombs called mastabas at Saqqara. Those mastabas are the ancestors of the pyramids that followed.

The Old Kingdom: the age of the pyramids

The Old Kingdom is the era most first-time visitors meet first, because it is all around Cairo. Around 2650 BC, the architect Imhotep built the Step Pyramid for King Djoser at Saqqara, one of the first large stone buildings in Egypt. Within a century, kings were experimenting at Dahshur, where you can see the Bent Pyramid and the Red Pyramid, and then perfecting the form at Giza. The Great Pyramid of Khufu dates to around 2560 BC, followed by the pyramids of Khafre and Menkaure and the Great Sphinx.

Later in the Old Kingdom, pyramids became smaller, but their interiors more interesting. The pyramid of Unas at Saqqara contains the Pyramid Texts, the oldest known religious writings inscribed inside a royal tomb. The nobles' tombs at Saqqara, with their lively scenes of farming, fishing, and crafts, offer a view into daily life from this time.

The Middle Kingdom and the intermediate periods

The Old Kingdom ended in a period of weaker central rule known as the First Intermediate Period. Egypt was reunited from Thebes, modern Luxor, around 2055 BC, beginning the Middle Kingdom. This era is often admired for its literature and fine sculpture, though fewer of its monuments survive above ground.

Visitors see it in the rock-cut tombs of Beni Hasan in Middle Egypt, in the mud-brick pyramids of the Fayoum region, and in the oldest parts of Karnak, where the reconstructed White Chapel of Senusret I sits in the open-air museum. The wooden models from the tomb of the official Meketre, showing boats, granaries, and workshops, are charming objects in the Tahrir museum.

The Second Intermediate Period followed, when rulers of Western Asian origin known as the Hyksos controlled the north while Theban princes held the south. The Thebans eventually expelled them, and from that victory came the New Kingdom.

The New Kingdom: Thebes and the great temples

If the Old Kingdom is Cairo, the New Kingdom is Luxor. Between about 1550 and 1069 BC, Egypt became an empire, and its kings poured wealth into the temples of Thebes. Karnak grew over some 2,000 years, but most of what you see, including the Great Hypostyle Hall, is New Kingdom work. Luxor Temple was built largely under Amenhotep III and Ramesses II.

Across the river on the west bank are the royal tombs of the Valley of the Kings, Hatshepsut's terraced temple at Deir el-Bahari, the Ramesseum, and Medinet Habu. This is also the age of Akhenaten, who moved the capital to Amarna, and of Tutankhamun, whose small tomb in the Valley of the Kings still holds his mummy, while his treasures are displayed at the Grand Egyptian Museum in Giza. Many other royal mummies of this era now rest at the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization in Cairo. Further south, Ramesses II carved the temples of Abu Simbel into the cliffs above the Nile, and Seti I built his beautifully carved temple at Abydos.

The Late, Ptolemaic, and Roman periods

After the New Kingdom, Egypt was often divided or ruled by outsiders. Kushite kings from Nubia formed the 25th Dynasty, a Saite revival from the Delta restored older artistic styles, and Persia conquered Egypt in 525 BC. In 332 BC Alexander the Great arrived, and after his death his general Ptolemy founded the dynasty that ruled until Cleopatra VII.

The Ptolemies built in the traditional Egyptian style to win the support of the priesthood, which is why Edfu, Dendera, Kom Ombo, and Philae look so classic even though they are relatively late. Rome took over in 30 BC and continued the tradition: the hypostyle hall at Esna and Trajan's Kiosk at Philae are Roman work. These temples are often well preserved, partly because they are younger and partly because some, like Edfu, were half buried by sand and debris before being cleared in the 19th century.

Christian and Islamic Egypt

Christianity spread through Egypt in the Roman period, and the Coptic churches of Old Cairo, the monastery of St. Anthony near the Red Sea and St. Catherine's in Sinai belong to these centuries. Temple worship faded; Philae, the last major center of the old religion, was closed in the 6th century.

Arab armies arrived in 641, and the Mosque of Amr in Old Cairo marks the start of Islamic Egypt. The Fatimids founded Cairo itself in 969 and Al-Azhar soon after. Saladin began the Citadel, and the Mamluk sultans filled the medieval city with mosques, schools and mausoleums, including the Qalawun complex and the Mosque of Sultan Hassan. The Ottomans ruled from 1517, and in the 19th century Muhammad Ali built the mosque that now dominates the Citadel skyline. The Suez Canal opened in 1869, and the modern era follows from there.

Using the timeline on your trip

A simple way to keep it straight: Cairo is mostly Old Kingdom plus Islamic and Coptic history; Luxor and Abu Simbel are mostly New Kingdom; the temples between Luxor and Aswan are Ptolemaic and Roman. A typical route through Cairo and a Nile cruise therefore moves forward and backward in time several times, and knowing the order helps you notice how styles changed.

Ask your guide on the first morning to sketch the periods for you; once you have the framework, every site slots into place. Visiting the Grand Egyptian Museum or the Tahrir museum early in your trip also helps, because their galleries are arranged so you can see the eras side by side. Explore our Egypt tours for routes that cover all three main eras.

Frequently asked questions

When were the pyramids built?

Mostly during the Old Kingdom, between about 2650 and 2150 BC. The Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza dates to around 2560 BC, and the Step Pyramid at Saqqara is roughly a century older.

Which period are the Luxor temples from?

Mainly the New Kingdom, about 1550 to 1069 BC, with later additions by many rulers. Karnak's history is longer, starting in the Middle Kingdom and continuing into the Ptolemaic period.

Why do Edfu and Dendera look so complete?

They are among the youngest major temples, built under the Ptolemies and Romans in the last centuries BC and the first centuries AD. Edfu was also protected for centuries by sand and debris until it was cleared in the 19th century.

Was Cleopatra an ancient Egyptian pharaoh?

Cleopatra VII ruled Egypt as queen and was the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty, which was of Macedonian Greek origin. She lived around 2,500 years after the Great Pyramid was built.

Where are the royal mummies today?

Most of the New Kingdom royal mummies are displayed at the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization in Cairo. Tutankhamun is the main exception: his mummy remains in his tomb in the Valley of the Kings, while his treasures are at the Grand Egyptian Museum.

Plan it with Nourbelle

If you would like a trip that moves through these eras in a sensible order, tell us your interests through plan your trip and a Nourbelle specialist will suggest a route.