From Alexander to Cleopatra: Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt at the Sites

Many of the most complete temples you visit on the Nile, including Edfu, Dendera, Kom Ombo, Esna, and Philae, were built or finished under the Greek Ptolemies and the Roman emperors who followed them. These rulers kept building in traditional Egyptian style and had themselves carved as pharaohs, and because these temples are among the youngest, many survived with their roofs and reliefs intact.

Travelers are often surprised to learn that the temple of Horus at Edfu, which looks like the classic Egyptian temple, was built by Greek kings, or that a Roman emperor appears making offerings on a wall at Philae. The last three centuries before Christ and the first centuries after it are one of the richest periods to see on the ground in Egypt, and knowing the story makes those visits much more rewarding.

This guide explains who the Ptolemies and Romans were, why they built Egyptian temples, which sites to look out for on a Nile trip and in Alexandria, and what details reveal the later date of a monument.

From Alexander to the Ptolemies

Alexander the Great took Egypt from the Persians in 332 BC and founded Alexandria the following year on the Mediterranean coast. After his death, his general Ptolemy took control of Egypt and eventually declared himself king, founding a dynasty that ruled for nearly three centuries.

The Ptolemies spoke Greek, ruled from Alexandria, and often married within the family, but they presented themselves to Egyptians as legitimate pharaohs. Under them, Alexandria became one of the great cities of the Mediterranean world, home to the famous Library and the Pharos lighthouse.

To win the support of the powerful priesthood and the population, the dynasty funded temples in the old Egyptian style, with their own names written in hieroglyphic cartouches. The trilingual Rosetta Stone, issued under Ptolemy V, reflects the same world: a priestly decree written in hieroglyphs, the later Egyptian demotic script, and Greek.

Cleopatra and the arrival of Rome

Cleopatra VII, born in 69 BC, was the last active ruler of the dynasty. She was Macedonian Greek by descent, and ancient sources say she was the first of her line to learn the Egyptian language. Her alliances with Julius Caesar and then Mark Antony made Egypt central to the politics of Rome. After their defeat by Octavian, she died in 30 BC, and Egypt became part of the Roman world.

Under Rome, Egypt was treated as the emperor's personal province and a vital source of grain. The emperors continued the Ptolemaic practice of appearing as pharaohs on temple walls. Augustus, Tiberius, Trajan and others are shown making offerings to Egyptian gods, wearing the traditional crowns, even though few of them ever visited.

Where to see Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt on a Nile trip

Edfu

Begun in 237 BC and completed in 57 BC, the temple of Horus at Edfu is one of the best-preserved temples in Egypt. Walking through its pylon, courtyard, halls and sanctuary gives you the clearest sense of how a working temple was organized. Most Nile cruises stop here.

Dendera

North of Luxor, the temple of Hathor at Dendera has well-preserved ceilings and roof chapels. On the rear exterior wall, Cleopatra VII and her son Caesarion are shown making offerings. A copy of the famous Dendera zodiac sits in one of the roof chapels; the original ceiling panel was removed in the 19th century and is now in the Louvre.

Kom Ombo

This unusual double temple, dedicated to the crocodile god Sobek and the falcon god Haroeris, has two parallel entrances and sanctuaries. A small museum nearby displays mummified crocodiles. Kom Ombo is a regular stop on Nile cruises.

Esna

Esna's temple sits below the level of the modern town. Its hypostyle hall was decorated under Roman emperors, and recent cleaning has revealed vivid original colors on the ceiling and columns. Esna also preserves some of the latest temple decoration in Egypt.

Philae

The temple of Isis at Philae, near Aswan, was relocated to Agilkia Island during the international rescue campaign that followed the building of the Aswan High Dam. Its buildings span the Ptolemaic and Roman periods, including the elegant kiosk of Trajan by the water. Philae holds the last known hieroglyphic inscription, dated to AD 394.

Later additions in Luxor

Even Luxor, the great city of the New Kingdom, has Ptolemaic chapters. At Karnak, monumental gateways and the small temple of Opet date from this period, and at the workers' village of Deir el-Medina, the neat temple of Hathor was built under the Ptolemies. Medinet Habu also has Ptolemaic and Roman additions in front of the earlier temple of Ramesses III. In Luxor Temple, a chamber once converted into a Roman imperial cult room still shows traces of painted Roman figures over the older reliefs. Ask your guide to point these out, as they are easy to walk past.

Faces from Roman Egypt

For a very human view of the period, look for the Faiyum mummy portraits, painted on wooden panels and placed over the faces of mummies in Roman times. They show real people with individual features, hairstyles and jewelry, and examples are displayed at the Egyptian Museum in Tahrir Square in Cairo.

Alexandria: the capital of the Ptolemies

Much of ancient Alexandria lies under the modern city or the sea, but you can still find traces of its Greek and Roman past.

• Kom el-Shoqafa catacombs: a Roman-era burial complex that mixes Egyptian, Greek and Roman artistic styles.
• Pompey's Pillar and the Serapeum site: a tall granite column erected under the emperor Diocletian, despite its popular name.
• Kom el-Dikka: a Roman theater and remains of baths and lecture halls.
• The Graeco-Roman Museum: a collection focused on the city's ancient history.
• The Citadel of Qaitbay: a later fortress built on the site of the Pharos lighthouse.

Alexander himself was buried in Alexandria, but his tomb has never been found. A day trip from Cairo or an overnight stay is enough for the main sites; see our Alexandria guide.

How to recognize a Ptolemaic or Roman monument

Once you know what to look for, the later date of a temple becomes easy to spot.

• Softer, rounder figures. Faces and bodies in Ptolemaic reliefs often look fuller and more rounded than in earlier periods.
• Crowded inscriptions. Walls carry dense columns of small hieroglyphs, using an expanded set of signs.
• Composite column capitals. Columns are often crowned with elaborate floral designs that differ from column to column.
• Screen walls. Low walls between front columns are common in later temples.
• Birth houses. Small temples called mammisi, celebrating the birth of a god, stand beside many later temples.
• Greek and Latin inscriptions, sometimes carved by ancient visitors, especially at Philae.

Your Egyptologist guide can point these out, and they make a fun game for older children on a cruise.

Where the story ends

Christianity spread in Egypt from the first centuries AD, and over time the old temples lost their role. The temple of Isis at Philae, long a pilgrimage center, is traditionally said to have been closed under the emperor Justinian in the sixth century. Many temples were later reused: Coptic churches were built within temple courts at Luxor, Medinet Habu and Philae, and you can still see crosses carved into older walls.

Frequently asked questions

Was Cleopatra Egyptian?

She was Macedonian Greek by descent and born into the Ptolemaic dynasty, which ruled from Alexandria. Ancient sources say she was the first of her family to learn the Egyptian language.

Why are Ptolemaic temples so well preserved?

They are among the youngest temples in Egypt, and several were partly buried by sand and silt for centuries, which protected their roofs and reliefs. Edfu and Dendera are good examples, with their roofs still in place.

Why does Dendera have a zodiac?

The Dendera zodiac reflects Greek and Babylonian astronomical ideas adopted in Egypt in the Ptolemaic period. The original ceiling panel is in the Louvre, and a copy remains in the temple.

Where is Alexander the Great buried?

He was buried in Alexandria, somewhere under the modern city. Despite many searches, the tomb has never been found.

Which Nile cruise stops are Ptolemaic or Roman?

Edfu and Kom Ombo are regular cruise stops, and Esna and Philae are often included as well. Dendera is usually visited on a day trip from Luxor.

Plan it with Nourbelle

If this period interests you, tell us when you plan your trip, and we can include Dendera and Esna alongside the regular stops on a Nile cruise.